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Cane toad

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="Cane_toad_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Cane toad (disambiguation)">Cane toad (disambiguation)</a>.</div>

<th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)">Cane toad <div style="font-size: 85%;">Temporal range: </div>

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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 88%">Adult male

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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 88%">Adult female

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<th colspan="2"><div style="text-align: center"><a href="Conservation_status" title="Conservation status">Conservation status</a></div>

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<td colspan="2"><div style="text-align: center"> <a href="Least_Concern" class="mw-redirect" title="Least Concern">Least Concern</a>  (<a href="IUCN_Red_List" title="IUCN Red List">IUCN 3.1</a>)<a href="#cite_note-iucn_status_19_November_2021-1">[1]</a></div>

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<th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; min-width:15em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Scientific classification</a>

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<td>Kingdom:

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<td><a href="Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a>

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<td>Phylum:

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<td><a href="Chordate" title="Chordate">Chordata</a>

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<td>Class:

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<td><a href="Amphibian" title="Amphibian">Amphibia</a>

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<td>Order:

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<td><a href="Frog" title="Frog">Anura</a>

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<td>Family:

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<td><a href="True_toad" title="True toad">Bufonidae</a>

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<td>Genus:

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<td><a href="Rhinella" title="Rhinella">Rhinella</a>

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<td>Species:

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<td><div style="display:inline" class="species">R. marina</div>

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<th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="Binomial_nomenclature" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a>

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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center">Rhinella marina <div style="font-size: 85%;">(<a href="Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a>, <a href="10th_edition_of_Systema_Naturae" title="10th edition of Systema Naturae">1758</a>)</div>

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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 88%">Distribution of the cane toad, native distribution in blue, introduced in red

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<th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="Synonym_(taxonomy)" title="Synonym (taxonomy)">Synonyms</a>

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<ul><li>Rana marina <a href="Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a>, <a href="10th_edition_of_Systema_Naturae" title="10th edition of Systema Naturae">1758</a></li>

<li>Bufo marinus Schneider, 1799</li>

<li>Rhinella marinus<a href="#cite_note-Frost,_Darrel_R._2011-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pramuk,_Robertson,_Sites,_and_Noonan_2008-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-CrosslandAlfordShine2009p626-4">[4]</a></li>

<li>Chaunus marinus<a href="#cite_note-CrosslandAlfordShine2009p626-4">[4]</a></li></ul>

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The cane toad (Rhinella marina), also known as the giant neotropical toad or marine toad, is a large, <a href="Terrestrial_animal" title="Terrestrial animal">terrestrial</a> <a href="True_toad" title="True toad">true toad</a> native to <a href="South_America" title="South America">South</a> and mainland <a href="Central_America" title="Central America">Central America</a>, but which has been <a href="Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">introduced</a> to various islands throughout <a href="Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a> and the <a href="Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a>, as well as <a href="Northern_Australia" title="Northern Australia">Northern Australia</a>. It is a member of the genus <a href="Rhinella" title="Rhinella">Rhinella</a>, which includes many true toad <a href="Species" title="Species">species</a> found throughout Central and South America, but it was formerly assigned to the genus <a href="Bufo" title="Bufo">Bufo</a>.

A fossil toad (specimen UCMP 41159) from the <a href="La_Venta_(Colombia)" title="La Venta (Colombia)">La Venta fauna</a> of the late <a href="Miocene" title="Miocene">Miocene</a> in <a href="Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a> is morphologically indistinguishable from modern cane toads from northern South America. It was discovered in a floodplain deposit, which suggests the R. marina habitat preferences have long been for open areas. The cane toad is a prolific breeder; females lay single-clump <a href="Spawn_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spawn (biology)">spawns</a> with thousands of <a href="Egg_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egg (biology)">eggs</a>. Its reproductive success is partly because of opportunistic feeding: it has a diet, unusual among <a href="Frog" title="Frog">anurans</a>, of both dead and living matter. Adults average 10–15 cm (4–6 in) in length; the largest recorded specimen had a <a href="Snout-vent_length" class="mw-redirect" title="Snout-vent length">snout-vent length</a> of 24 cm (9.4 in).

The cane toad has poison <a href="Gland" title="Gland">glands</a>, and the <a href="Tadpole" title="Tadpole">tadpoles</a> are highly toxic to most animals if ingested. Its toxic skin can kill many animals, both wild and domesticated, and cane toads are particularly dangerous to dogs. Because of its voracious appetite, the cane toad has been introduced to many regions of the Pacific and the Caribbean islands as a method of agricultural <a href="Pest_control" title="Pest control">pest control</a>. The common name of the species is derived from its use against the <a href="Cane_beetle" class="mw-redirect" title="Cane beetle">cane beetle</a> (Dermolepida albohirtum), which damages <a href="Sugar_cane" class="mw-redirect" title="Sugar cane">sugar cane</a>. The cane toad is now considered a pest and an <a href="Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">invasive species</a> in many of its introduced regions. The 1988 film <a href="Cane_Toads%3A_An_Unnatural_History" title="Cane Toads: An Unnatural History">Cane Toads: An Unnatural History</a> documented the trials and tribulations of the introduction of <a href="Cane_toads_in_Australia" title="Cane toads in Australia">cane toads in Australia</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Taxonomy">Taxonomy</h2></div>

Historically, the cane toad was used to eradicate pests from <a href="Sugarcane" title="Sugarcane">sugarcane</a>, giving rise to its common name. The cane toad has many other common names, including "giant toad" and "marine toad"; the former refers to its size, and the latter to the <a href="Binomial_nomenclature" title="Binomial nomenclature">binomial name</a>, R. marina. It was one of many species described by <a href="Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a> in his 18th-century work <a href="10th_edition_of_Systema_Naturae" title="10th edition of Systema Naturae">Systema Naturae</a> (1758).<a href="#cite_note-Linnaeus1758p824-5">[5]</a> Linnaeus based the <a href="Specific_name_(zoology)" title="Specific name (zoology)">specific epithet</a> marina on an illustration by Dutch zoologist <a href="Albertus_Seba" title="Albertus Seba">Albertus Seba</a>, who mistakenly believed the cane toad to inhabit both terrestrial and marine environments.<a href="#cite_note-beltz2007-6">[6]</a> Other common names include "giant neotropical toad",<a href="#cite_note-Easteal1985p185-7">[7]</a> "Dominican toad",<a href="#cite_note-InvasiveSpeciesInfo-8">[8]</a> "giant marine toad",<a href="#cite_note-Caughley1996-9">[9]</a> and "South American cane toad".<a href="#cite_note-CSIROBiodiversity-10">[10]</a> In <a href="Trinidad" title="Trinidad">Trinidadian</a> English, they are commonly called crapaud, the French word for toad.<a href="#cite_note-Kenny2008-11">[11]</a>

The genus Rhinella is considered to constitute a distinct <a href="Genus" title="Genus">genus</a> of its own, thus changing the <a href="Scientific_name" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific name">scientific name</a> of the cane toad. In this case, the <a href="Specific_name_(zoology)" title="Specific name (zoology)">specific name</a> marinus (<a href="Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">masculine</a>) changes to marina (feminine) to conform with the rules of gender agreement as set out by the <a href="International_Code_of_Zoological_Nomenclature" title="International Code of Zoological Nomenclature">International Code of Zoological Nomenclature</a>, changing the binomial name from Bufo marinus to Rhinella marina; the binomial Rhinella marinus was subsequently introduced as a synonym through misspelling by Pramuk, Robertson, Sites, and Noonan (2008).<a href="#cite_note-Frost,_Darrel_R._2011-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pramuk,_Robertson,_Sites,_and_Noonan_2008-3">[3]</a> Though controversial (with many traditional herpetologists still using Bufo marinus) the binomial Rhinella marina is gaining in acceptance with such bodies as the <a href="IUCN" class="mw-redirect" title="IUCN">IUCN</a>,<a href="#cite_note-iucn_status_19_November_2021-1">[1]</a> <a href="Encyclopaedia_of_Life" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopaedia of Life">Encyclopaedia of Life</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Rhinella_marina_eol-12">[12]</a> Amphibian Species of the World <a href="#cite_note-Frost,_Darrel_R._2011-2">[2]</a> and increasing numbers of scientific publications adopting its usage.

Since 2016, cane toad populations native to <a href="Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a> and northwestern South America are sometimes considered to be a separate species, <a href="Rhinella_horribilis" title="Rhinella horribilis">Rhinella horribilis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a>

In Australia, the adults may be confused with large native frogs from the genera <a href="Limnodynastes" title="Limnodynastes">Limnodynastes</a>, <a href="Cyclorana" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyclorana">Cyclorana</a>, and <a href="Barred_frogs" class="mw-redirect" title="Barred frogs">Mixophyes</a>. These species can be distinguished from the cane toad by the absence of large <a href="Parotoid_gland" title="Parotoid gland">parotoid glands</a> behind their eyes and the lack of a ridge between the nostril and the eye.<a href="#cite_note-VanderduysEric2000p1-14">[14]</a> Cane toads have been confused with the <a href="Giant_burrowing_frog" title="Giant burrowing frog">giant burrowing frog</a> (Heleioporus australiacus), because both are large and warty in appearance; however, the latter can be readily distinguished from the former by its vertical pupils and its silver-grey (as opposed to gold) <a href="Iris_(anatomy)" title="Iris (anatomy)">irises</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BurrowingFrogAustralianMuseum-15">[15]</a> Juvenile cane toads may be confused with species of the genus <a href="Uperoleia" title="Uperoleia">Uperoleia</a>, but their adult colleagues can be distinguished by the lack of bright colouring on the groin and thighs.<a href="#cite_note-BarkerGriggTyler1995p381-16">[16]</a>

In the United States, the cane toad closely resembles many bufonid species. In particular, it could be confused with the <a href="Southern_toad" title="Southern toad">southern toad</a> (Anaxyrus terrestris), which can be distinguished by the presence of two bulbs in front of the parotoid glands.<a href="#cite_note-BrandtMazzotti2005-17">[17]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taxonomy_and_evolution">Taxonomy and evolution</h3></div>

The cane toad genome has been sequenced and certain Australian academics believe this will help in understanding how the toad can quickly evolve to adapt to new environments, the workings of its infamous toxin, and hopefully provide new options for halting this species' march across Australia and other places it has spread as an invasive pest.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a>

Studies of the genome confirm its evolutionary origins in northern part of South America and its close genetic relation to <a href="Rhinella_diptycha" title="Rhinella diptycha">Rhinella diptycha</a> and other similar species of the genus.<a href="#cite_note-VallinotoSequeiraSodré2010-19">[19]</a> Recent studies suggest that R. marina diverged between 2.75 and 9.40 million years ago.<a href="#cite_note-RiveraPratesFirneno2021-20">[20]</a>

A recent split in the species into further subspecies may have occurred approximately 2.7 million years ago following the isolation of population groups by the rising <a href="Northern_Andes" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Andes">Venezuelan Andes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-SladeMoritz1998-21">[21]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Description">Description</h2></div>

Considered the largest species in the Bufonidae,<a href="#cite_note-UWI-22">[22]</a> the cane toad is very large;<a href="#cite_note-Robinson1998-23">[23]</a> the females are significantly longer than males,<a href="#cite_note-Lee2001p928-24">[24]</a> reaching a typical length of 10–15 cm (4–6 in),<a href="#cite_note-Robinson1998-23">[23]</a> with a maximum of 24 cm (9.4 in).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrandtMazzotti2005-25">[25]</a> Larger toads tend to be found in areas of lower population density.<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1989p117-26">[26]</a> They have a life expectancy of 10 to 15 years in the wild,<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1989p117-118-27">[27]</a> and can live considerably longer in captivity, with one specimen reportedly surviving for 35 years.<a href="#cite_note-Grenard2007p55-28">[28]</a>

The skin of the cane toad is dry and warty.<a href="#cite_note-Robinson1998-23">[23]</a> Distinct ridges above the eyes run down the snout.<a href="#cite_note-VanderduysEric2000p1-14">[14]</a> Individual cane toads can be grey, yellowish, red-brown, or olive-brown, with varying patterns.<a href="#cite_note-Cameron2009-29">[29]</a> A large parotoid gland lies behind each eye.<a href="#cite_note-Robinson1998-23">[23]</a> The ventral surface is cream-coloured and may have blotches in shades of black or brown. The pupils are horizontal and the irises golden.<a href="#cite_note-BurrowingFrogAustralianMuseum-15">[15]</a> The toes have a fleshy webbing at their base,<a href="#cite_note-Robinson1998-23">[23]</a> and the fingers are free of webbing.<a href="#cite_note-Cameron2009-29">[29]</a>

Typically, juvenile cane toads have smooth, dark skin, although some specimens have a red wash. Juveniles lack the adults' large parotoid glands, so they are usually less poisonous.<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1989p117-26">[26]</a> The <a href="Tadpole" title="Tadpole">tadpoles</a> are small and uniformly black, and are bottom-dwellers, tending to form <a href="Swarm" class="mw-redirect" title="Swarm">schools</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1976p81-30">[30]</a> Tadpoles range from 10 to 25 mm (0.4 to 1.0 in) in length.<a href="#cite_note-issgBufoMarinus-31">[31]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ecology,_behaviour_and_life_history">Ecology, behaviour and life history</h2></div>

The common name "marine toad" and the scientific name Rhinella marina suggest a link to <a href="Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">marine life</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1989p116-32">[32]</a> but cane toads do not live in the sea. However, laboratory experiments suggest that <a href="Tadpoles" class="mw-redirect" title="Tadpoles">tadpoles</a> can tolerate salt concentrations equivalent to 15% of <a href="Seawater" title="Seawater">seawater</a> (~5.4‰),<a href="#cite_note-Ely1944p256-33">[33]</a> and recent field observations found living tadpoles and toadlets at salinities of 27.5‰ on <a href="Coiba_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Coiba Island">Coiba Island</a>, <a href="Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a>.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> The cane toad inhabits open grassland and woodland, and has displayed a "distinct preference" for areas modified by humans, such as gardens and drainage ditches.<a href="#cite_note-Lever2001p3-35">[35]</a> In their native habitats, the toads can be found in subtropical forests,<a href="#cite_note-issgBufoMarinus-31">[31]</a> although dense foliage tends to limit their dispersal.<a href="#cite_note-BarkerGriggTyler1995p380-36">[36]</a>

The cane toad begins life as an egg, which is laid as part of long strings of jelly in water. A female lays 8,000–25,000 eggs at once and the strings can stretch up to 20 m (66 ft) in length.<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1989p116-32">[32]</a> The black eggs are covered by a membrane and their diameter is about 1.7–2.0 mm (0.067–0.079 in).<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1989p116-32">[32]</a> The rate at which an egg grows into a tadpole increases with temperature. Tadpoles typically hatch within 48 hours, but the period can vary from 14 hours to almost a week.<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1989p116-32">[32]</a> This process usually involves thousands of tadpoles—which are small, black, and have short tails—forming into groups. Between 12 and 60 days are needed for the tadpoles to develop into juveniles, with four weeks being typical.<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1989p116-32">[32]</a> Similarly to their adult counterparts, eggs and tadpoles are toxic to many animals.<a href="#cite_note-Robinson1998-23">[23]</a>

When they emerge, toadlets typically are about 10–11 mm (0.39–0.43 in) in length, and grow rapidly. While the rate of growth varies by region, time of year, and sex, an average initial growth rate of 0.647 mm (0.0255 in) per day is seen, followed by an average rate of 0.373 mm (0.0147 in) per day. Growth typically slows once the toads reach sexual maturity.<a href="#cite_note-ZugZug1979pp14-15-37">[37]</a> This rapid growth is important for their survival; in the period between metamorphosis and subadulthood, the young toads lose the toxicity that protected them as eggs and tadpoles, but have yet to fully develop the parotoid glands that produce <a href="Bufotoxin" title="Bufotoxin">bufotoxin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ZugZug1979p15-38">[38]</a> Only an estimated 0.5% of cane toads reach adulthood, in part because they lack this key defense<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1989p117-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-Anstis2002p274-39">[39]</a>—but also due to tadpole cannibalism. Although cannibalism does occur in the native population in South America, the <a href="Rapid_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Rapid evolution">rapid evolution</a> occurring in the unnaturally large population in Australia has produced tadpoles 30x more likely to be interested in cannibalising their siblings, and 2.6x more likely to actually do so. They have also evolved to shorten their tadpole phase in response to the presence of older tadpoles. These changes are likely genetic, although no genetic basis has been determined.<a href="#cite_note-Kozlov-2021-40">[40]</a>

As with rates of growth, the point at which the toads become sexually mature varies across different regions. In New Guinea, sexual maturity is reached by female toads with a snout–vent length between 70 and 80 mm (2.8 and 3.1 in), while toads in <a href="Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a> achieve maturity when they are between 90 and 100 mm (3.5 and 3.9 in) in length.<a href="#cite_note-ZugZug1979p8-41">[41]</a> In tropical regions, such as their native habitats, breeding occurs throughout the year, but in subtropical areas, breeding occurs only during warmer periods that coincide with the onset of the <a href="Wet_season" title="Wet season">wet season</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lever2001p6-42">[42]</a>

The cane toad is estimated to have a critical thermal maximum of 40–42 °C (104–108 °F) and a minimum of around 10–15 °C (50–59 °F).<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1989p118-43">[43]</a> The ranges can change due to adaptation to the local environment.<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1989p119-44">[44]</a> Cane toads from some populations can adjust their thermal tolerance within a few hours of encountering low temperatures.<a href="#cite_note-:0-45">[45]</a> The toad is able to rapidly acclimate to the cold using physiological plasticity, though there is also evidence that more northerly populations of cane toads in the United States are better cold-adapted than more southerly populations.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> These adaptations have allowed the cane toad to establish invasive populations across the world. The toad's ability to rapidly acclimate to thermal changes suggests that current models may underestimate the potential range of habitats that the toad can populate.<a href="#cite_note-:0-45">[45]</a> The cane toad has a high tolerance to water loss; some can withstand a 52.6% loss of body water, allowing them to survive outside tropical environments.<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1989p119-44">[44]</a>

Most frogs identify prey by movement, and vision appears to be the primary method by which the cane toad detects prey; however, it can also locate food using its sense of smell.<a href="#cite_note-Lever2001p10-47">[47]</a> They eat a wide range of material; in addition to the normal prey of small <a href="Rodent" title="Rodent">rodents</a>, other small <a href="Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a>,<a href="#cite_note-UWI-22">[22]</a> <a href="Reptile" title="Reptile">reptiles</a>, other <a href="Amphibian" title="Amphibian">amphibians</a>, <a href="Bird" title="Bird">birds</a>, and even <a href="Bat" title="Bat">bats</a> and a range of <a href="Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a> (such as <a href="Ant" title="Ant">ants</a>, <a href="Beetle" title="Beetle">beetles</a>, <a href="Earwig" title="Earwig">earwigs</a>, <a href="Dragonflies" class="mw-redirect" title="Dragonflies">dragonflies</a>, <a href="Grasshopper" title="Grasshopper">grasshoppers</a>, <a href="True_bug" class="mw-redirect" title="True bug">true bugs</a>, <a href="Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</a>, and <a href="Gastropod" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastropod">gastropods</a>),<a href="#cite_note-Rhinella_marina_Cane_Toad-48">[48]</a> they also eat plants, dog food, cat food,<a href="#cite_note-Rhinella_marina_Cane_Toad-48">[48]</a> feces,<a href="#cite_note-UWI-22">[22]</a> and household refuse.<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1989pp130-132-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Defences">Defences</h3></div>

The skin of the adult cane toad is toxic, as well as the enlarged parotoid glands behind the eyes, and other glands across its back. When the toad is threatened, its glands secrete a milky-white fluid known as <a href="Bufotoxin" title="Bufotoxin">bufotoxin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1989p134-51">[51]</a> Components of bufotoxin are toxic to many animals;<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1989pp134-136-52">[52]</a> even human deaths have been recorded due to the consumption of cane toads.<a href="#cite_note-issgBufoMarinus-31">[31]</a> Dogs are especially prone to be poisoned by licking or biting toads. Pets showing excessive drooling, extremely red gums, head-shaking, crying, loss of coordination, and/or convulsions require immediate veterinary attention.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrandtMazzotti2005-25">[25]</a>

<a href="Bufotenin" title="Bufotenin">Bufotenin</a>, one of the chemicals excreted by the cane toad, is classified as a schedule 9 drug under Australian law, alongside <a href="Heroin" title="Heroin">heroin</a> and <a href="Lysergic_acid_diethylamide" class="mw-redirect" title="Lysergic acid diethylamide">LSD</a>.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> The effects of bufotenin are thought to be similar to those of mild poisoning; the stimulation, which includes mild <a href="Hallucination" title="Hallucination">hallucinations</a>, lasts less than an hour.<a href="#cite_note-Fawcett2004-08-04p9-54">[54]</a> As the cane toad excretes bufotenin in small amounts, and other toxins in relatively large quantities, <a href="Psychoactive_toad" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychoactive toad">toad licking</a> could result in serious illness or death.<a href="#cite_note-Weil1994pp1-8-55">[55]</a>

In addition to releasing toxin, the cane toad is capable of inflating its lungs, puffing up, and lifting its body off the ground to appear taller and larger to a potential predator.<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1989p134-51">[51]</a>

Since 2011, experimenters in the Kimberley region of Western Australia have used poisonous sausages containing toad meat in an attempt to protect native animals from cane toads' deadly impact. The Western Australian Department of Environment and Conservation, along with the University of Sydney, developed these sausage-shaped baits as a tool in order to train native animals not to eat the toads. By blending bits of toad with a nausea-inducing chemical, the baits train the animals to stay away from the amphibians.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a>

Young cane toads that aren't lethal upon ingestion have also been used to teach native predators avoidance, namely <a href="Yellow-spotted_monitor" title="Yellow-spotted monitor">yellow-spotted monitors</a>. 200,000 metamorphs, tadpoles, and eggs in total were released in areas ahead of inevitable invasion fronts. Following invasion by wild cane toads, yellow-spotted monitors in control areas bereft of the "teacher toads" were virtually wiped out, but experimental areas still contained substantial populations of yellow-spotted monitors.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Predators">Predators</h3></div>

Many species prey on the cane toad and its tadpoles in its native habitat, including the <a href="Broad-snouted_caiman" title="Broad-snouted caiman">broad-snouted caiman</a> (Caiman latirostris), the banded cat-eyed snake (<a href="Leptodeira_annulata" title="Leptodeira annulata">Leptodeira annulata</a>), eels (family <a href="Anguillidae" title="Anguillidae">Anguillidae</a>), various species of <a href="Killifish" title="Killifish">killifish</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1989pp138-139-60">[60]</a> and <a href="Paraponera_clavata" title="Paraponera clavata">Paraponera clavata</a> (bullet ants).<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a>

Predators outside the cane toad's native range include the rock flagtail (<a href="Kuhlia_rupestris" title="Kuhlia rupestris">Kuhlia rupestris</a>), some species of <a href="Catfish" title="Catfish">catfish</a> (order Siluriformes), some species of <a href="Ibis" title="Ibis">ibis</a> (subfamily Threskiornithinae),<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1989pp138-139-60">[60]</a> the <a href="Whistling_kite" title="Whistling kite">whistling kite</a> (Haliastur sphenurus), the <a href="Rakali" title="Rakali">rakali</a> (Hydromys chrysogaster), the <a href="Black_rat" title="Black rat">black rat</a> (Rattus rattus) and the <a href="Asian_water_monitor" title="Asian water monitor">water monitor</a> (Varanus salvator). The <a href="Tawny_frogmouth" title="Tawny frogmouth">tawny frogmouth</a> (Podargus strigoides) and the <a href="Papuan_frogmouth" title="Papuan frogmouth">Papuan frogmouth</a> (Podargus papuensis)<a href="#cite_note-Angus1994pp10-11-62">[62]</a> have been reported as feeding on cane toads; some Australian crows (<a href="Corvus" title="Corvus">Corvus</a> spp.) have also learned strategies allowing them to feed on cane toads, such as using their beak to flip toads onto their backs.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> <a href="Kookaburra" title="Kookaburra">Kookaburras</a> also prey on the amphibians.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a>

Opossums of the genus <a href="Didelphis" title="Didelphis">Didelphis</a> likely can eat cane toads with impunity.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> <a href="Meat_ant" title="Meat ant">Meat ants</a> are unaffected by the cane toads' toxins, so are able to kill them without reaction.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> The cane toad's normal response to attack is to stand still and let its toxin kill or repel the attacker, which allows the ants to attack and eat the toad.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> <a href="Saw-shelled_turtle" title="Saw-shelled turtle">Saw-shelled turtles</a> have also been seen successfully and safely eating cane toads.

In Australia <a href="Rakali" title="Rakali">rakali</a> (Australian water rats) in two years learnt how to eat cane toads safely. They select the largest toads, turn them over, remove the poisonous gallbladder, and eat the heart and other organs with "surgical precision". They remove the toxic skin and eat the thigh muscle. Other animals such as crows and kites turn cane toads inside out and eat non-poisonous organs, also thus avoiding the skin.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Distribution">Distribution</h2></div>

The cane toad is native to the Americas, and its range stretches from the <a href="Rio_Grande_Valley_(Texas)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rio Grande Valley (Texas)">Rio Grande Valley</a> in <a href="South_Texas" title="South Texas">South Texas</a> to the central <a href="Amazon_basin" title="Amazon basin">Amazon</a> and southeastern <a href="Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a>, and some of the continental islands near <a href="Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a> (such as <a href="Trinidad" title="Trinidad">Trinidad</a> and <a href="Tobago" title="Tobago">Tobago</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1989p111-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-ZugZug1979p1-2-71">[71]</a> This area encompasses both <a href="Tropics" title="Tropics">tropical</a> and <a href="Semi-arid_climate" title="Semi-arid climate">semiarid</a> environments. The density of the cane toad is significantly lower within its native distribution than in places where it has been introduced. In South America, the density was recorded to be 20 adults per 100 m (110 yd) of shoreline, 1 to 2% of the density in Australia.<a href="#cite_note-LampoDeLeo1998p392-72">[72]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="As_an_introduced_species">As an introduced species</h3></div>

The cane toad has been introduced to many regions of the world—particularly the Pacific—for the biological control of agricultural pests.<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1989p111-70">[70]</a> These introductions have generally been well documented, and the cane toad may be one of the most studied of any <a href="Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">introduced species</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Easteall981p94-73">[73]</a>

Before the early 1840s, the cane toad had been introduced into <a href="Martinique" title="Martinique">Martinique</a> and <a href="Barbados" title="Barbados">Barbados</a>, from <a href="French_Guiana" title="French Guiana">French Guiana</a> and <a href="Guyana" title="Guyana">Guyana</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Easteal1981p96-74">[74]</a> An introduction to <a href="Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a> was made in 1844 in an attempt to reduce the rat population.<a href="#cite_note-Lannoo2005p417-75">[75]</a> Despite its failure to control the rodents, the cane toad was introduced to <a href="Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a> in the early 20th century in the hope that it would counter a beetle infestation ravaging the sugarcane plantations. The Puerto Rican scheme was successful and halted the economic damage caused by the beetles, prompting scientists in the 1930s to promote it as an ideal solution to agricultural pests.<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1989p112-113-76">[76]</a>

As a result, many countries in the Pacific region emulated the lead of Puerto Rico and introduced the toad in the 1930s.<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1989p113-114-77">[77]</a> Introduced populations are in <a href="Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Smith2005p433-441-78">[78]</a> <a href="Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a>,<a href="#cite_note-ZugLindgremPippet1975p31-50-79">[79]</a> the <a href="Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Alcala1957p90-96-80">[80]</a> the <a href="Ogasawara_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Ogasawara Islands">Ogasawara</a>, <a href="Ishigaki_Island" title="Ishigaki Island">Ishigaki Island</a> and the <a href="Dait%C5%8D_Islands" title="Daitō Islands">Daitō Islands</a> of Japan,<a href="#cite_note-KideraEtAl2008p423-440-81">[81]</a> <a href="Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> <a href="Nantou_County" title="Nantou County">Nantou</a> <a href="Caotun" title="Caotun">Caotun</a>,<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> most Caribbean islands,<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1989p113-114-77">[77]</a> <a href="Fiji" title="Fiji">Fiji</a> and many other Pacific islands,<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1989p113-114-77">[77]</a> including <a href="Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a>.<a href="#cite_note-OliverShaw1953p65-95-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hinckley1963p253-259-84">[84]</a> Since then, the cane toad has become a pest in many host countries, and poses a serious threat to native animals.<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1989p113-85">[85]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australia">Australia</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Cane_toads_in_Australia" title="Cane toads in Australia">Cane toads in Australia</a></div>Following the apparent success of the cane toad in eating the beetles threatening the sugarcane plantations of Puerto Rico, and the fruitful introductions into Hawaiʻi and the Philippines, a strong push was made for the cane toad to be released in Australia to negate the pests ravaging the Queensland cane fields.<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1976p77-86">[86]</a> As a result, 102 toads were collected from Hawaiʻi and brought to Australia.<a href="#cite_note-Easteall981p104-87">[87]</a> Queensland's sugar scientists released the toad into cane fields in August 1935.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> After this initial release, the Commonwealth Department of Health decided to ban future introductions until a study was conducted into the feeding habits of the toad. The study was completed in 1936 and the ban lifted, when large-scale releases were undertaken; by March 1937, 62,000 toadlets had been released into the wild.<a href="#cite_note-Easteall981p104-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-89">[89]</a> The toads became firmly established in Queensland, increasing exponentially in number and extending their range into the <a href="Northern_Territory" title="Northern Territory">Northern Territory</a> and <a href="New_South_Wales" title="New South Wales">New South Wales</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cameron2009-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-Easteall981p104-87">[87]</a> In 2010, one was found on the far western coast in <a href="Broome%2C_Western_Australia" title="Broome, Western Australia">Broome, Western Australia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a>

However, the toad was generally unsuccessful in reducing the targeted grey-backed cane beetles (<a href="Dermolepida_albohirtum" title="Dermolepida albohirtum">Dermolepida albohirtum</a>), in part because the cane fields provided insufficient shelter for the predators during the day,<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1976p83-91">[91]</a> and in part because the beetles live at the tops of sugar cane—and cane toads are not good climbers.<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1976p77-86">[86]</a> Since its original introduction, the cane toad has had a particularly marked effect on Australian <a href="Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>. The population of a number of native predatory reptiles has declined, such as the <a href="Monitor_lizard" title="Monitor lizard">varanid</a> lizards <a href="Varanus_mertensi" class="mw-redirect" title="Varanus mertensi">Varanus mertensi</a>, <a href="Varanus_mitchelli" class="mw-redirect" title="Varanus mitchelli">V. mitchelli</a>, and <a href="Varanus_panoptes" class="mw-redirect" title="Varanus panoptes">V. panoptes</a>, the land snakes <a href="Pseudechis_australis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudechis australis">Pseudechis australis</a> and <a href="Acanthophis_antarcticus" class="mw-redirect" title="Acanthophis antarcticus">Acanthophis antarcticus</a>, and the freshwater crocodile species <a href="Freshwater_crocodile" title="Freshwater crocodile">Crocodylus johnstoni</a>; in contrast, the population of the <a href="Agamidae" title="Agamidae">agamid</a> lizard Amphibolurus gilberti—known to be a prey item of V. panoptes—has increased.<a href="#cite_note-DoodyEtAl2009p46-53-92">[92]</a> <a href="Meat_ant" title="Meat ant">Meat ants</a>, however, are able to kill cane toads.<a href="#cite_note-meat_ants_2022-93">[93]</a> The cane toad has also been linked to decreases in <a href="Northern_quoll" title="Northern quoll">northern quolls</a> in the southern region of <a href="Kakadu_National_Park" title="Kakadu National Park">Kakadu National Park</a> and even their <a href="Local_extinction" title="Local extinction">local extinction</a>.<a href="#cite_note-environment-94">[94]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Caribbean">Caribbean</h3></div>

The cane toad was introduced to various Caribbean islands to counter a number of pests infesting local crops.<a href="#cite_note-Lever2001p67-95">[95]</a> While it was able to establish itself on some islands, such as <a href="Barbados" title="Barbados">Barbados</a>, <a href="Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a>, <a href="Hispaniola" title="Hispaniola">Hispaniola</a> and <a href="Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>, other introductions, such as in <a href="Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> before 1900 and in 1946, and on the islands of <a href="Dominica" title="Dominica">Dominica</a> and <a href="Grand_Cayman" title="Grand Cayman">Grand Cayman</a>, were unsuccessful.<a href="#cite_note-Lever2001p73-74-96">[96]</a>

The earliest recorded introductions were to Barbados and <a href="Martinique" title="Martinique">Martinique</a>. The Barbados introductions were focused on the biological control of pests damaging the sugarcane crops,<a href="#cite_note-Lever2001p71-97">[97]</a> and while the toads became abundant, they have done even less to control the pests than in Australia.<a href="#cite_note-KennedyLever2001p72-98">[98]</a> The toad was introduced to Martinique from <a href="French_Guiana" title="French Guiana">French Guiana</a> before 1944 and became established. Today, they reduce the <a href="Mosquito" title="Mosquito">mosquito</a> and <a href="Mole_cricket" title="Mole cricket">mole cricket</a> populations.<a href="#cite_note-Lever2001p81-99">[99]</a> A third introduction to the region occurred in 1884, when toads appeared in Jamaica, reportedly imported from Barbados to help control the rodent population. While they had no significant effect on the rats, they nevertheless became well established.<a href="#cite_note-Lever2001p78-79-100">[100]</a> Other introductions include the release on <a href="Antigua" title="Antigua">Antigua</a>—possibly before 1916, although this initial population may have died out by 1934 and been reintroduced at a later date<a href="#cite_note-Easteal1981p98-101">[101]</a>—and <a href="Montserrat" title="Montserrat">Montserrat</a>, which had an introduction before 1879 that led to the establishment of a solid population, which was apparently sufficient to survive the <a href="Soufri%C3%A8re_Hills" title="Soufrière Hills">Soufrière Hills volcano</a> eruption in 1995.<a href="#cite_note-Lever2001p81-82-102">[102]</a>

In 1920, the cane toad was introduced into Puerto Rico to control the populations of <a href="Phyllophaga" title="Phyllophaga">white grub</a> (Phyllophaga spp.), a sugarcane pest.<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1989p112-103">[103]</a> Before this, the pests were manually collected by humans, so the introduction of the toad eliminated labor costs.<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1989p112-103">[103]</a> A second group of toads was imported in 1923, and by 1932, the cane toad was well established.<a href="#cite_note-VanVolkenberg1935-104">[104]</a> The population of white grubs dramatically decreased,<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1989p112-103">[103]</a> and this was attributed to the cane toad at the annual meeting of the International Sugar Cane Technologists in Puerto Rico.<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1989p113-85">[85]</a> However, there may have been other factors.<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1989p113-85">[85]</a> The six-year period after 1931—when the cane toad was most prolific, and the white grub had a dramatic decline—had the highest-ever rainfall for Puerto Rico.<a href="#cite_note-Freeland1985p211-215-105">[105]</a> Nevertheless, the cane toad was assumed to have controlled the white grub; this view was reinforced by a <a href="Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a> article titled "Toads save sugar crop",<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1989p113-85">[85]</a> and this led to large-scale introductions throughout many parts of the Pacific.<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1989p113-115-106">[106]</a>

The cane toad has been spotted in <a href="Carriacou" title="Carriacou">Carriacou</a> and <a href="Dominica" title="Dominica">Dominica</a>, the latter appearance occurring in spite of the failure of the earlier introductions.<a href="#cite_note-Lever2001p72-73-107">[107]</a> On September 8, 2013, the cane toad was also discovered on the island of <a href="New_Providence" title="New Providence">New Providence</a> in the Bahamas.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Philippines">The Philippines</h3></div>

The cane toad was first introduced deliberately into the <a href="Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> in 1930 as a biological control agent of pests in sugarcane plantations, after the success of the experimental introductions into Puerto Rico.<a href="#cite_note-piper-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-diesmos-111">[111]</a> It subsequently became the most ubiquitous amphibian in the islands. It still retains the common name of bakî or kamprag in the <a href="Visayan_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Visayan languages">Visayan languages</a>, a <a href="Corruption_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Corruption (linguistics)">corruption</a> of 'American frog', referring to its origins.<a href="#cite_note-kamprag-109">[109]</a> It is also commonly known as "bullfrog" in Philippine English.<a href="#cite_note-dedicatoria-112">[112]</a>

The cane toad was introduced into <a href="Fiji" title="Fiji">Fiji</a> to combat insects that infested sugarcane plantations. The introduction of the cane toad to the region was first suggested in 1933, following the successes in Puerto Rico and Hawaiʻi. After considering the possible side effects, the national government of Fiji decided to release the toad in 1953, and 67 specimens were subsequently imported from Hawaiʻi.<a href="#cite_note-Lever2001p128-129-113">[113]</a> Once the toads were established, a 1963 study concluded, as the toad's diet included both harmful and beneficial invertebrates, it was considered "economically neutral".<a href="#cite_note-Hinckley1963p253-259-84">[84]</a> Today, the cane toad can be found on all major islands in Fiji, although they tend to be smaller than their counterparts in other regions.<a href="#cite_note-Lever2001p130-131-114">[114]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_Guinea">New Guinea</h3></div>

The cane toad was introduced into <a href="New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a> to control the <a href="Hawk_moth" class="mw-redirect" title="Hawk moth">hawk moth</a> larvae eating <a href="Sweet_potato" title="Sweet potato">sweet potato</a> crops.<a href="#cite_note-ZugLindgremPippet1975p31-50-79">[79]</a> The first release occurred in 1937 using toads imported from Hawaiʻi, with a second release the same year using specimens from the Australian mainland. Evidence suggests a third release in 1938, consisting of toads being used for human <a href="Pregnancy_test" title="Pregnancy test">pregnancy tests</a>—many species of toad were found to be effective for this task, and were employed for about 20 years after the discovery was announced in 1948.<a href="#cite_note-Easteall981p103-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-TylerWassersugSmith2007pp6-7-116">[116]</a> Initial reports argued the toads were effective in reducing the levels of <a href="Cutworm" title="Cutworm">cutworms</a> and sweet potato yields were thought to be improving.<a href="#cite_note-Lever2001p118-117">[117]</a> As a result, these first releases were followed by further distributions across much of the region,<a href="#cite_note-Lever2001p118-117">[117]</a> although their effectiveness on other crops, such as cabbages, has been questioned; when the toads were released at <a href="Wau%2C_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Wau, Papua New Guinea">Wau</a>, the cabbages provided insufficient shelter and the toads rapidly left the immediate area for the superior shelter offered by the forest.<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1976pp83-84-118">[118]</a> A similar situation had previously arisen in the Australian cane fields, but this experience was either unknown or ignored in New Guinea.<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1976pp83-84-118">[118]</a> The cane toad has since become abundant in rural and urban areas.<a href="#cite_note-Lever2001p119-119">[119]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3></div>

The cane toad naturally exists in <a href="South_Texas" title="South Texas">South Texas</a>, but attempts (both deliberate and accidental) have been made to introduce the species to other parts of the country. These include introductions to <a href="Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a> and to Hawaiʻi, as well as largely unsuccessful introductions to <a href="Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Easteal1981pp100-102-120">[120]</a>

Initial releases into Florida failed. Attempted introductions before 1936 and 1944, intended to control sugarcane pests, were unsuccessful as the toads failed to proliferate. Later attempts failed in the same way.<a href="#cite_note-Lever2001p57-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-Easteal1981p100-122">[122]</a> However, the toad gained a foothold in the state after an accidental release by an importer at <a href="Miami_International_Airport" title="Miami International Airport">Miami International Airport</a> in 1957, and deliberate releases by animal dealers in 1963 and 1964 established the toad in other parts of Florida.<a href="#cite_note-Easteal1981p100-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lever2001p58-123">[123]</a> Today, the cane toad is well established in the state, from the <a href="Florida_Keys" title="Florida Keys">Keys</a> to north of <a href="Tampa%2C_Florida" title="Tampa, Florida">Tampa</a>, and they are gradually extending further northward.<a href="#cite_note-Lever2001p59-124">[124]</a> In Florida, the toad is a regarded as a threat to native species<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> and pets;<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> so much so, the <a href="Florida_Fish_and_Wildlife_Conservation_Commission" title="Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission">Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission</a> recommends residents to kill them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrandtMazzotti2005-25">[25]</a>

Around 150 cane toads were introduced to <a href="Oahu" class="mw-redirect" title="Oahu">Oʻahu</a> in Hawaiʻi in 1932, and the population swelled to 105,517 after 17 months.<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1989p113-114-77">[77]</a> The toads were sent to the other islands, and more than 100,000 toads were distributed by July 1934;<a href="#cite_note-Lever2001p64-127">[127]</a> eventually over 600,000 were transported.<a href="#cite_note-Easteal1981p101-128">[128]</a>

Other than the use as a <a href="Biological_pest_control" title="Biological pest control">biological control for pests</a>, the cane toad has been employed in a number of commercial and noncommercial applications. Traditionally, within the toad's natural range in South America, the <a href="Embera-Wounaan" title="Embera-Wounaan">Embera-Wounaan</a> would "milk" the toads for their toxin, which was then employed as an <a href="Arrow_poison" title="Arrow poison">arrow poison</a>. The toxins may have been used as an <a href="Entheogen" title="Entheogen">entheogen</a> by the <a href="Olmec" class="mw-redirect" title="Olmec">Olmec</a> people. The toad has been hunted as a food source in parts of <a href="Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a>, and eaten after the careful removal of the skin and <a href="Parotoid_gland" title="Parotoid gland">parotoid glands</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lever2001p32-129">[129]</a> When properly prepared, the meat of the toad is considered healthy and as a source of <a href="Omega-3_fatty_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Omega-3 fatty acid">omega-3 fatty acids</a>.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> More recently, the toad's toxins have been used in a number of new ways: <a href="Bufotenin" title="Bufotenin">bufotenin</a> has been used in Japan as an <a href="Aphrodisiac" title="Aphrodisiac">aphrodisiac</a> and a <a href="Baldness_treatments" class="mw-redirect" title="Baldness treatments">hair restorer</a>, and in <a href="Cardiac_surgery" title="Cardiac surgery">cardiac surgery</a> in China to lower the heart rates of patients.<a href="#cite_note-issgBufoMarinus-31">[31]</a> New research has suggested that the cane toad's poison may have some applications in treating <a href="Prostate_cancer" title="Prostate cancer">prostate cancer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a>

Other modern applications of the cane toad include pregnancy testing,<a href="#cite_note-Lever2001p32-129">[129]</a> as pets,<a href="#cite_note-Mattison1987p145-132">[132]</a> laboratory research,<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1976p85-133">[133]</a> and the production of <a href="Leather" title="Leather">leather</a> goods. <a href="Pregnancy_test" title="Pregnancy test">Pregnancy testing</a> was conducted in the mid-20th century by injecting urine from a woman into a male toad's <a href="Lymphatic_system" title="Lymphatic system">lymph sacs</a>, and if <a href="Spermatozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatozoa">spermatozoa</a> appeared in the toad's urine, the patient was deemed to be pregnant.<a href="#cite_note-Lever2001p32-129">[129]</a> The tests using toads were faster than <a href="Rabbit_test" title="Rabbit test">those employing mammals</a>; the toads were easier to raise, and, although the initial 1948 discovery employed <a href="Bufo_arenarum" class="mw-redirect" title="Bufo arenarum">Bufo arenarum</a> for the tests, it soon became clear that a variety of <a href="Frog" title="Frog">anuran</a> species were suitable, including the cane toad. As a result, toads were employed in this task for around 20 years.<a href="#cite_note-TylerWassersugSmith2007pp6-7-116">[116]</a> As a <a href="Animal_testing" title="Animal testing">laboratory animal</a>, the cane toad has numerous advantages: they are plentiful, and easy and inexpensive to maintain and handle. The use of the cane toad in experiments started in the 1950s, and by the end of the 1960s, large numbers were being collected and exported to high schools and universities.<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1976p85-133">[133]</a> Since then, a number of Australian states have introduced or tightened importation regulations.<a href="#cite_note-Tyler1976pp88-89-134">[134]</a>

There are several commercial uses for dead cane toads. Cane toad skin is made into leather and novelty items.<a href="#cite_note-McCarin2008p8-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hardie2001p3-136">[136]</a> Stuffed cane toads, posed and accessorised, are merchandised at souvenir shops for tourists.<a href="#cite_note-Bateman2008p48-137">[137]</a> Attempts have been made to produce <a href="Fertiliser" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertiliser">fertiliser</a> from toad carcasses.<a href="#cite_note-AAP2006-138">[138]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div>

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<li id="cite_note-ZugZug1979p1-2-71"><a href="#cite_ref-ZugZug1979p1-2_71-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZugZug1979">Zug & Zug 1979</a>, pp. 1–2

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<li id="cite_note-Tyler1989p112-113-76"><a href="#cite_ref-Tyler1989p112-113_76-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTyler1989">Tyler 1989</a>, pp. 112–113

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<li id="cite_note-DoodyEtAl2009p46-53-92"><a href="#cite_ref-DoodyEtAl2009p46-53_92-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDoodyGreenRhindCastellano2009">Doody et al. 2009</a>, pp. 46–53. On snake populations see <a href="#CITEREFShine2009">Shine 2009</a>, p. 20.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-meat_ants_2022-93"><a href="#cite_ref-meat_ants_2022_93-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aepma.com.au/PestDetail/10/Meat">Meat Ant.</a> Australian Environmental Pest Managers Association (AEPMA) (accessed July 2022)

</li>

<li id="cite_note-environment-94"><a href="#cite_ref-environment_94-0">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/key-threatening-processes/biological-effects-cane-toads">"The biological effects, including lethal toxic ingestion, caused by Cane Toads (Bufo marinus)"</a>. www.environment.gov.au. April 12, 2005. Retrieved October 29, 2015.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Lever2001p67-95"><a href="#cite_ref-Lever2001p67_95-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLever2001">Lever 2001</a>, p. 67

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Lever2001p73-74-96"><a href="#cite_ref-Lever2001p73-74_96-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLever2001">Lever 2001</a>, pp. 73–74

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Lever2001p71-97"><a href="#cite_ref-Lever2001p71_97-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLever2001">Lever 2001</a>, p. 71

</li>

<li id="cite_note-KennedyLever2001p72-98"><a href="#cite_ref-KennedyLever2001p72_98-0">^</a> Kennedy, Anthony quoted in <a href="#CITEREFLever2001">Lever 2001</a>, p. 72

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Lever2001p81-99"><a href="#cite_ref-Lever2001p81_99-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLever2001">Lever 2001</a>, p. 81

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Lever2001p78-79-100"><a href="#cite_ref-Lever2001p78-79_100-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLever2001">Lever 2001</a>, pp. 78–79

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Easteal1981p98-101"><a href="#cite_ref-Easteal1981p98_101-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEasteal1981">Easteal 1981</a>, p. 98

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Lever2001p81-82-102"><a href="#cite_ref-Lever2001p81-82_102-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLever2001">Lever 2001</a>, pp. 81–82

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Tyler1989p112-103">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tyler1989p112_103-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tyler1989p112_103-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tyler1989p112_103-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFTyler1989">Tyler 1989</a>, p. 112

</li>

<li id="cite_note-VanVolkenberg1935-104"><a href="#cite_ref-VanVolkenberg1935_104-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVan_Volkenberg1935">Van Volkenberg 1935</a>, pp. 278–279. "After a completely successful method of killing white grubs by chemical means was found, the only opportunities for its use in Puerto Rico have been limited to small areas in pineapple plantations at elevations where the toad is even yet not present in sufficient abundance."

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Freeland1985p211-215-105"><a href="#cite_ref-Freeland1985p211-215_105-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFreeland1985">Freeland 1985</a>, pp. 211–215

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Tyler1989p113-115-106"><a href="#cite_ref-Tyler1989p113-115_106-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTyler1989">Tyler 1989</a>, pp. 113–115

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Lever2001p72-73-107"><a href="#cite_ref-Lever2001p72-73_107-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLever2001">Lever 2001</a>, pp. 72–73

</li>

<li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tribune242.com/news/2013/sep/06/killer-toad-found-new-providence/">"Killer Toad Found in New Providence"</a>. Tribute 242. Retrieved 2013-09-07.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-kamprag-109">^ <a href="#cite_ref-kamprag_109-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-kamprag_109-1">b</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.binisaya.com/cebuano/kamprag">"kamprag"</a>. Binisaya.com.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-piper-110"><a href="#cite_ref-piper_110-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRoss_Piper2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Ross_Piper" title="Ross Piper">Ross Piper</a> (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nlSX5kDnd78C&q=Bufo%20marinus%20philippines%201930&pg=PA236">Pests: A Guide to the World's Most Maligned, Yet Misunderstood Creatures</a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 236. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-313-38426-4</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-diesmos-111"><a href="#cite_ref-diesmos_111-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFArvin_C._DiesmosMae_L._DiesmosRafe_M._Brown2005" class="citation journal cs1">Arvin C. Diesmos; Mae L. Diesmos; Rafe M. Brown (2005). "Status and Distribution of Alien Invasive Frogs in the Philippines". Journal of Environmental Science and Management. 9 (2): 41–53. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0119-1144">0119-1144</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-dedicatoria-112"><a href="#cite_ref-dedicatoria_112-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRanell_Martin_M._DedicatoriaCarmelita_M._RebancosLeticia_E._AfuangMa._Victoria_O._Espaldon2010" class="citation conference cs1">Ranell Martin M. Dedicatoria; Carmelita M. Rebancos; Leticia E. Afuang; Ma. Victoria O. Espaldon (2010). Identifying Environmental Changes in Mt. Data Watershed, Bauko, Mt. Province, Northern Philippines: Implications to Sustainable Management. 4th Asian Rural Sociology Association (ARSA) International Conference. pp. 402–412.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Lever2001p128-129-113"><a href="#cite_ref-Lever2001p128-129_113-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLever2001">Lever 2001</a>, pp. 128–129

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Lever2001p130-131-114"><a href="#cite_ref-Lever2001p130-131_114-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLever2001">Lever 2001</a>, pp. 130–131

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Easteall981p103-115"><a href="#cite_ref-Easteall981p103_115-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEasteal1981">Easteal 1981</a>, p. 103

</li>

<li id="cite_note-TylerWassersugSmith2007pp6-7-116">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TylerWassersugSmith2007pp6-7_116-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-TylerWassersugSmith2007pp6-7_116-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTylerWassersugSmith2007">Tyler, Wassersug & Smith 2007</a>, pp. 6–7

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Lever2001p118-117">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lever2001p118_117-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lever2001p118_117-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLever2001">Lever 2001</a>, p. 118

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Tyler1976pp83-84-118">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tyler1976pp83-84_118-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tyler1976pp83-84_118-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTyler1976">Tyler 1976</a>, pp. 83–84

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Lever2001p119-119"><a href="#cite_ref-Lever2001p119_119-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLever2001">Lever 2001</a>, p. 119

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Easteal1981pp100-102-120"><a href="#cite_ref-Easteal1981pp100-102_120-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEasteal1981">Easteal 1981</a>, pp. 100–102

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Lever2001p57-121"><a href="#cite_ref-Lever2001p57_121-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLever2001">Lever 2001</a>, p. 57

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Easteal1981p100-122">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Easteal1981p100_122-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Easteal1981p100_122-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFEasteal1981">Easteal 1981</a>, p. 100

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Lever2001p58-123"><a href="#cite_ref-Lever2001p58_123-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLever2001">Lever 2001</a>, p. 58

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Lever2001p59-124"><a href="#cite_ref-Lever2001p59_124-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLever2001">Lever 2001</a>, p. 59

</li>

<li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wec.ufl.edu/extension/wildlife_info/frogstoads/bufo_marinus.php">"Bufo marinus @ Florida Wildlife Extension at UF/IFAS"</a>. Wec.ufl.edu. Retrieved 2010-04-26.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130203202720/http://www2.tbo.com/content/2007/nov/02/021636/poisonous-bufo-may-have-toad-hold-temple-terrace/">"Poisonous Bufo May Have Toad Hold On Temple Terrace"</a>. .tbo.com. 2007-11-02. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.tbo.com/content/2007/nov/02/021636/poisonous-bufo-may-have-toad-hold-temple-terrace/">the original</a> on 2013-02-03. Retrieved 2010-04-26.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Lever2001p64-127"><a href="#cite_ref-Lever2001p64_127-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLever2001">Lever 2001</a>, p. 64

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Easteal1981p101-128"><a href="#cite_ref-Easteal1981p101_128-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEasteal1981">Easteal 1981</a>, p. 101

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Lever2001p32-129">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lever2001p32_129-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lever2001p32_129-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lever2001p32_129-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFLever2001">Lever 2001</a>, p. 32

</li>

<li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFTerzon,_Emilia2014" class="citation web cs1">Terzon, Emilia (11 November 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-11-11/academic-wants-us-to-eat-cane-toads/5882986?WT.mc_id=Corp_News-Nov2014">"Eating cane toads a win-win solution for Australia's environment and stomachs, says academic"</a>. ABC. Retrieved 11 November 2014.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-09-17/cane-toad-venom-attacks-cancer-cells/5750114">"Cane toad poison 'attacks prostate cancer cells'"</a>. ABC News. 17 September 2014.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Mattison1987p145-132"><a href="#cite_ref-Mattison1987p145_132-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMattison1987">Mattison 1987</a>, p. 145

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Tyler1976p85-133">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tyler1976p85_133-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tyler1976p85_133-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTyler1976">Tyler 1976</a>, p. 85

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Tyler1976pp88-89-134"><a href="#cite_ref-Tyler1976pp88-89_134-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTyler1976">Tyler 1976</a>, pp. 88–89

</li>

<li id="cite_note-McCarin2008p8-135"><a href="#cite_ref-McCarin2008p8_135-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcCarin2008">McCarin 2008</a>, p. 8

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Hardie2001p3-136"><a href="#cite_ref-Hardie2001p3_136-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHardie2001">Hardie 2001</a>, p. 3

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Bateman2008p48-137"><a href="#cite_ref-Bateman2008p48_137-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBateman2008">Bateman 2008</a>, p. 48

</li>

<li id="cite_note-AAP2006-138"><a href="#cite_ref-AAP2006_138-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAustralian_Associated_Press2006">Australian Associated Press 2006</a>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3></div>

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<li><cite id="CITEREFCaughleyGunn1996" class="citation book cs1">Caughley, Graeme; Gunn, Anne (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/conservationbiol00caug">Conservation biology in theory and practice</a>. Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-86542-431-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFCrosslandAlfordShine2009" class="citation journal cs1">Crossland, Michael R.; Alford, Ross A.; Shine, Richard (2009). "Impact of the invasive cane toad (Bufo marinus) on an Australian frog (Opisthodon ornatus) depends on minor variation in reproductive timing". Population Ecology. 158 (4): 625–632. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009Oecol.158..625C">2009Oecol.158..625C</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00442-008-1167-y">10.1007/s00442-008-1167-y</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18853191">18853191</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:23753852">23753852</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFDoodyGreenRhindCastellano2009" class="citation journal cs1">Doody, J. S.; Green, B.; Rhind, D.; Castellano, C. M.; Sims, R.; Robinson, T. (2009). "Population-level declines in Australian predators caused by an invasive species". Animal Conservation. 12 (1): 46–53. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009AnCon..12...46D">2009AnCon..12...46D</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1469-1795.2008.00219.x">10.1111/j.1469-1795.2008.00219.x</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:86177629">86177629</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFEasteal1981" class="citation journal cs1">Easteal, Simon (1981). "The history of introductions of Bufo marinus (Amphibia : Anura); a natural experiment in evolution". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 16 (2): 93–113. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1095-8312.1981.tb01645.x">10.1111/j.1095-8312.1981.tb01645.x</a>.</cite></li>

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<li><cite id="CITEREFEly1944" class="citation journal cs1">Ely, C. A. (1944). "Development of Bufo marinus larvae in dilute sea water". <a href="Copeia" class="mw-redirect" title="Copeia">Copeia</a>. 56 (4): 256. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1438692">10.2307/1438692</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1438692">1438692</a>.</cite></li>

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<li><cite id="CITEREFGrenard2007" class="citation book cs1">Grenard, Steve (2007). Frogs and Toads. <a href="John_Wiley_and_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley and Sons">John Wiley and Sons</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-470-16510-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

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<li><cite id="CITEREFHardie2001" class="citation news cs1">Hardie, Alan (January 22, 2001). "It's tough selling toads ...". <a href="Northern_Territory_News" title="Northern Territory News">Northern Territory News</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHinckley1963" class="citation journal cs1">Hinckley, A. D. (1963). "Diet of the giant toad, Bufo marinus (L.) in Fiji". Herpetologica. 18 (4).</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFInvasive_Species_Specialist_Group2006" class="citation web cs1"><a href="Invasive_Species_Specialist_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasive Species Specialist Group">Invasive Species Specialist Group</a> (June 1, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090817231108/http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=113&fr=1&sts=">"Ecology of Bufo marinus"</a>. Global Invasive Species Database. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=113&fr=1&sts=">the original</a> on August 17, 2009. Retrieved July 2, 2009.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKenny2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Julian_Kenny" title="Julian Kenny">Kenny, Julian</a> (2008). The Biological Diversity of Trinidad and Tobago: A Naturalist's Notes. Prospect Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-976-95082-3-1</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKideraTandavanitjOhNakanishi2008" class="citation journal cs1">Kidera, N.; Tandavanitj, N.; Oh, D.; Nakanishi, N.; Satoh, A.; Denda, T.; Izawa, M.; Ota, H. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10125/22718/1/vol62n3-423-430.pdf">"Dietary habits of the introduced cane toad Bufo marinus (Amphibia: Bufonidae) on Ishigakijima, southern Ryukyus, Japan"</a> (PDF). Pacific Science. 62 (3): 423–430. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2984%2F1534-6188%282008%2962%5B423%3ADHOTIC%5D2.0.CO%3B2">10.2984/1534-6188(2008)62[423:DHOTIC]2.0.CO;2</a>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10125%2F22718">10125/22718</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:9234254">9234254</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLampoDe_Leo1998" class="citation journal cs1">Lampo, Margarita; De Leo, Giulio A. (1998). "The Invasion Ecology of the Toad Bufo marinus: from South America to Australia". Ecological Applications. 8 (2): 388–396. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1890%2F1051-0761%281998%29008%5B0388%3Atieott%5D2.0.co%3B2">10.1890/1051-0761(1998)008[0388:tieott]2.0.co;2</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2641079">2641079</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLannoo2005" class="citation book cs1">Lannoo, Michael J. (2005). Amphibian Declines: The Conservation Status of United States Species. <a href="University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-520-23592-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLee2001" class="citation journal cs1">Lee, Julian C. (2001). Price, A. H (ed.). "Evolution of a Secondary Sexual Dimorphism in the Toad, Bufo marinus". Copeia. 2001 (4): 928–935. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1643%2F0045-8511%282001%29001%5B0928%3AEOASSD%5D2.0.CO%3B2">10.1643/0045-8511(2001)001[0928:EOASSD]2.0.CO;2</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:85826932">85826932</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLever2001" class="citation book cs1">Lever, Christopher (2001). The Cane Toad. The history and ecology of a successful colonist. Westbury Publishing. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-84103-006-7</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li>(in Latin) <cite id="CITEREFLinnaeus1758" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Linnaeus, Carolus</a> (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata. Holmiae. (Laurentii Salvii).</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMattison1987" class="citation book cs1">Mattison, Chris (1987). Frogs & Toads of the World. Blandford Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7137-1825-6</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMcCarin2008" class="citation news cs1">McCarin, Julie (April 29, 2008). "Kisses for a toad". <a href="Leader_Community_Newspapers" title="Leader Community Newspapers">The Leader</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFOliverShaw1953" class="citation journal cs1">Oliver, J. A.; Shaw, C. E. (1953). "The amphibians and reptiles of the Hawaiian Islands". Zoologica (New York). 38 (5).</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRobinson1998" class="citation book cs1">Robinson, Martyn (1998). A field guide to frogs of Australia: from Port Augusta to Fraser Island including Tasmania. Reed New Holland. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-876334-83-3</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFShine2009" class="citation journal cs1">Shine, Rick (July 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200321035900/http://classicbackissues.australasianscience.com.au/bi2009/306toad.pdf">"Controlling Cane Toads Ecologically"</a> (PDF). Australasian Science. 30 (6): 20–23. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://classicbackissues.australasianscience.com.au/bi2009/306toad.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2020-03-21. Retrieved 2019-11-05.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSmith2005" class="citation journal cs1">Smith, K. G. (2005). "Effects of nonindigenous tadpoles on native tadpoles in Florida: evidence of competition". Biological Conservation. 123 (4): 433–441. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005BCons.123..433S">2005BCons.123..433S</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.biocon.2005.01.005">10.1016/j.biocon.2005.01.005</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFTyler1976" class="citation book cs1">Tyler, Michael J. (1976). Frogs. William Collins (Australia). <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-00-211442-4</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFTyler1989" class="citation book cs1">Tyler, Michael J. (1989). Australian Frogs. Penguin Books. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-670-90123-4</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFTylerWassersugSmith2007" class="citation journal cs1">Tyler, Michael J.; Wassersug, Richard; Smith, Benjamin (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160604131527/http://www.savethefrogs.com/why-frogs/images/Tyler-2007-Why-Frogs.pdf">"How frogs and humans interact: Influences beyond habitat destruction, epidemics and global warming"</a> (PDF). Applied Herpetology. 4 (1): 1–18. <a href="CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.695.9111">10.1.1.695.9111</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F157075407779766741">10.1163/157075407779766741</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.savethefrogs.com/why-frogs/images/Tyler-2007-Why-Frogs.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2016-06-04.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFVanderduysWilson2000" class="citation journal cs1">Vanderduys, Eric; Wilson, Steve (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.qm.qld.gov.au/Learning+Resources/~/media/Documents/Learning%20resources/QM/Resources/Fact%20Sheets/fact-sheet-cane-toad.pdf">"Cane Toads (Fact Sheet)"</a> (PDF). Queensland Museum Learning. <a href="Queensland_Museum" title="Queensland Museum">Queensland Museum</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFVan_Volkenberg1935" class="citation journal cs1">Van Volkenberg, H. L. (1935). "Biological Control of an Insect Pest by a Toad". Science. 82 (2125): 278–279. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1935Sci....82..278V">1935Sci....82..278V</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.82.2125.278">10.1126/science.82.2125.278</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17792964">17792964</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWeilDavis1994" class="citation journal cs1">Weil, A. T.; Davis, W. (1994). "Bufo alvarius: a potent hallucinogen of animal origin". <a href="Journal_of_Ethnopharmacology" title="Journal of Ethnopharmacology">Journal of Ethnopharmacology</a>. 41 (1–2): 1–8. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0378-8741%2894%2990051-5">10.1016/0378-8741(94)90051-5</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8170151">8170151</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFZugLindgremPippet1975" class="citation journal cs1">Zug, G. R.; Lindgrem, E.; Pippet, J. R. (1975). "Distribution and ecology of marine toad, Bufo marinus, in Papua New Guinea". Pacific Science. 29 (1).</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFZugZug1979" class="citation journal cs1">Zug, G. R.; Zug, P. B. (1979). "The Marine Toad, Bufo marinus: A natural history resumé of native populations". Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology. 284 (284): 1–58. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5479%2Fsi.00810282.284">10.5479/si.00810282.284</a>.</cite></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Rhinella_marina" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Rhinella marina">Rhinella marina</a>.</div></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="Wikispecies" title="Wikispecies">Wikispecies</a> has information related to <a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Rhinella_marina" class="extiw external" title="wikispecies:Rhinella marina">Rhinella marina</a>.</div></div>

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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/aquatic/fish-and-other-vertebrates/cane-toad">Species Profile – Cane Toad (Rhinella marina)</a>, National Invasive Species Information Center, <a href="United_States_National_Agricultural_Library" title="United States National Agricultural Library">United States National Agricultural Library</a>. Lists general information and resources for cane toad.</li></ul>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Taxon_identifiers4918" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Taxon_identifiers4918" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Taxon identifiers</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;">Rhinella marina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Wikidata" title="Wikidata">Wikidata</a>: <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q321087" class="extiw external" title="wikidata:Q321087">Q321087</a></li>

<li><a href="Wikispecies" title="Wikispecies">Wikispecies</a>: <a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Rhinella_marina" class="extiw external" title="wikispecies:Rhinella marina">Rhinella marina</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal_Diversity_Web" title="Animal Diversity Web">ADW</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Rhinella_marina/">Rhinella_marina</a></li>

<li><a href="Australian_Faunal_Directory" title="Australian Faunal Directory">AFD</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biodiversity.org.au/afd/taxa/Rhinella_marina">Rhinella_marina</a></li>

<li><a href="AmphibiaWeb" title="AmphibiaWeb">AmphibiaWeb</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://amphibiaweb.org/species/229">229</a></li>

<li><a href="Amphibian_Species_of_the_World" title="Amphibian Species of the World">ASW</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://amphibiansoftheworld.amnh.org/Amphibia/Anura/Bufonidae/Rhinella/Rhinella-marina">Rhinella-marina</a></li>

<li><a href="INaturalist" title="INaturalist">iNaturalist</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inaturalist.org/taxa/67129">67129</a></li>

<li><a href="NatureServe" title="NatureServe">NatureServe</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.1146759/">2.1146759</a></li>

<li><a href="Observation.org" title="Observation.org">Observation.org</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://observation.org/species/85322/">85322</a></li>

<li><a href="SeaLifeBase" title="SeaLifeBase">SeaLifeBase</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sealifebase.ca/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=130865">130865</a></li>

<li><a href="World_Register_of_Marine_Species" title="World Register of Marine Species">WoRMS</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=1432725">1432725</a></li>

<li><a href="Xeno-canto" title="Xeno-canto">Xeno-canto</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://xeno-canto.org/species/Rhinella-marina">Rhinella-marina</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;">Rana marina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Wikidata" title="Wikidata">Wikidata</a>: <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q24813606" class="extiw external" title="wikidata:Q24813606">Q24813606</a></li>

<li><a href="Interim_Register_of_Marine_and_Nonmarine_Genera" title="Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera">IRMNG</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irmng.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=11008704">11008704</a></li>

<li><a href="ZooBank" title="ZooBank">ZooBank</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zoobank.org/NomenclaturalActs/E6356CAD-ACF9-4336-A15A-E4E4F2B98639">E6356CAD-ACF9-4336-A15A-E4E4F2B98639</a></li></ul>

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